Different interpretations of Freud’s theories of the subconscious emerged fifty years after he first introduced his idea of psychoanalysis, however, it was not until after the Second World war that some of his basic notions were challenged. At the core of Freudian psychology lies the pleasure principle, the drive for basic pleasurable feelings that come into conflict with the moderate influence of the ego and superego. Humanists such as Maslow pointed to the importance of human needs beyond mere physical survival. The Viennese psychoanalyst Viktor Frankl, who endured terrible suffering as a Jew during World War II, questioned the significance of hedonism — pleasure-seeking — as a motivating force. He suggested instead that we seek out meaning in life, and that even suffering could become bearable if it was seen as having a purpose. By deciding what experiences were meaningful, we had the power to make them tolerable.
Mind and brain
In many cultures around this world, there is the view that humans have a soul that exists independently of the physical body. For Greek philosophers, the soul was also viewed as the seat of our reasoning abilities - what we would call our minds today. While Aristotle...
